The essential oil of Tibetan medicine Dracocephalum heterophyllum Benth was obtained by hydrodistillation with a 0.7% (v/w) yield. The chemical composition of the essential oil was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectral (GC-MS). Eighty-three compounds, constituting about 89.83% of the total oil, were identified. The main compound in the oil were Cineole (14.89%), trans-nerolido (7.10%), 1-m-ethyl-2-(1-methylethyl)-benzene (4.42%), Germacrene-D (4.84%), Decahydro-1,1,4,7-tetramethyl-4aH-cycloprop[e]azulen-4a-ol (4.94%), p-menth-1-en-4-ol,acetate (4.34%), 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-3-cyclohexen-1-ol (4.10%). The antimicrobial activity of the oil was evaluated against nine bacterial, one yeast, and three fungi. The antimicrobial test result showed that the essential oil strongly inhibited the growth of test microorganisms studied. The maximal inhibition zones and MIC values for bacterial, yeast and fungi strain were in the range of 18-25 mm and 0.039-0.156 mg mL(-1); *20 mm, and 0.156 mg mL(-1); 8-24 mm and 0.313-2.5 mg mL(-1); respectively. The antioxidant activity of the oil was determined by the malonyldialdehyde (MDA) test, measuring the MDA concentration in mouse liver cell microsomal after induced lipid peroxidation using FeSO(4) and ascorbic acid, The inhibition of lipid peroxidation was 59.3% with a concentration of 0.5 mg mL(-1). Result presented here may suggest that the essential oil of D. heterophyllum posses antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, and therefore, they can be one of new medicinal resources for antimicrobial agent and/or used as a natural preservative ingredient in food and cosmetics and pharmaceuticals industry.
The essential oil of Tibetan medicine Dracocephalum heterophyllum Benth was obtained by hydrodistillation with a 0.7% (v/w) yield. The chemical composition of the essential oil was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectral (GC-MS). Eighty-three compounds, constituting about 89.83% of the total oil, were identified. The main compound in the oil were Cineole (14.89%), trans-nerolido (7.10%), 1-m-ethyl-2-(1-methylethyl)-benzene (4.42%), Germacrene-D (4.84%), Decahydro-1,1,4,7-tetramethyl-4aH-cycloprop[e]azulen-4a-ol (4.94%), p-menth-1-en-4-ol,acetate (4.34%), 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-3-cyclohexen-1-ol (4.10%). The antimicrobial activity of the oil was evaluated against nine bacterial, one yeast, and three fungi. The antimicrobial test result showed that the essential oil strongly inhibited the growth of test microorganisms studied. The maximal inhibition zones and MIC values for bacterial, yeast and fungi strain were in the range of 18-25 mm and 0.039-0.156 mg mL(-1); *20 mm, and 0.156 mg mL(-1); 8-24 mm and 0.313-2.5 mg mL(-1); respectively. The antioxidant activity of the oil was determined by the malonyldialdehyde (MDA) test, measuring the MDA concentration in mouse liver cell microsomal after induced lipid peroxidation using FeSO(4) and ascorbic acid, The inhibition of lipid peroxidation was 59.3% with a concentration of 0.5 mg mL(-1). Result presented here may suggest that the essential oil of D. heterophyllum posses antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, and therefore, they can be one of new medicinal resources for antimicrobial agent and/or used as a natural preservative ingredient in food and cosmetics and pharmaceuticals industry.
Minerals are alchemically processed as Bhasmas in Ayurvedic medicines or as Zuotai in Tibetan medicines. Ayurveda is a knowledge system of longevity and considers the mineral elixir made from "nature" capable of giving humans perpetual life. Herbo-metallic preparations have a long history in the treatment of various diseases in India, China, and around the world. Their disposition, pharmacology, efficacy, and safety require scientific evaluation. This review discusses the Bhasmas in Ayurvedic medicines and Zuotai in Tibetan medicines for their occurrence, bioaccessibility, therapeutic use, pharmacology, toxicity, and research perspectives. A literature search on Mineral, Bhasma, Ayurvedic medicine, Zuotai, Tibetan medicine, and Metals/metalloids from PubMed, Google and other sources was carried out, and the relevant papers on their traditional use, pharmacology, and toxicity were selected and analyzed. Minerals are processed to form Bhasma or Zuotai to alter their physiochemical properties distinguishing them from environmental metals. The metals found in Ayurveda are mainly from the intentional addition in the form of Bhasma or Zuotai. Bhasma and Zuotai are often used in combination with other herbals and/or animal-based products as mixtures. The advanced technologies are now utilized to characterize herbo-metallic preparations as Quality Assurance/Quality Control. The bioaccessibility, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination of herbo-metallic preparations are different from environmental metals. The pharmacological basis of Bhasma in Ayurveda and Zuotai in Tibetan medicines and their interactions with drugs require scientific research. Although the toxic potentials of Bhasma and Zuotai differ from environmental metals, the metal poisoning case reports, especially lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and arsenic (As) from inappropriate use of traditional medicines, are increasing, and pharmacovigilance is desired. In risk assessment, chemical forms of metals in Bhasma and Zuotai should be considered for their disposition, efficacy, and toxicity.
Minerals are alchemically processed as Bhasmas in Ayurvedic medicines or as Zuotai in Tibetan medicines. Ayurveda is a knowledge system of longevity and considers the mineral elixir made from "nature" capable of giving humans perpetual life. Herbo-metallic preparations have a long history in the treatment of various diseases in India, China, and around the world. Their disposition, pharmacology, efficacy, and safety require scientific evaluation. This review discusses the Bhasmas in Ayurvedic medicines and Zuotai in Tibetan medicines for their occurrence, bioaccessibility, therapeutic use, pharmacology, toxicity, and research perspectives. A literature search on Mineral, Bhasma, Ayurvedic medicine, Zuotai, Tibetan medicine, and Metals/metalloids from PubMed, Google and other sources was carried out, and the relevant papers on their traditional use, pharmacology, and toxicity were selected and analyzed. Minerals are processed to form Bhasma or Zuotai to alter their physiochemical properties distinguishing them from environmental metals. The metals found in Ayurveda are mainly from the intentional addition in the form of Bhasma or Zuotai. Bhasma and Zuotai are often used in combination with other herbals and/or animal-based products as mixtures. The advanced technologies are now utilized to characterize herbo-metallic preparations as Quality Assurance/Quality Control. The bioaccessibility, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination of herbo-metallic preparations are different from environmental metals. The pharmacological basis of Bhasma in Ayurveda and Zuotai in Tibetan medicines and their interactions with drugs require scientific research. Although the toxic potentials of Bhasma and Zuotai differ from environmental metals, the metal poisoning case reports, especially lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and arsenic (As) from inappropriate use of traditional medicines, are increasing, and pharmacovigilance is desired. In risk assessment, chemical forms of metals in Bhasma and Zuotai should be considered for their disposition, efficacy, and toxicity.
To study the chemical constituents of the aerial parts of <ce:italic>Codonopsis nervosa</ce:italic> (Chipp.) Nannf. (Campanulaceae), a commonly used Tibetan herb. The constituents were isolated by D-101 porous polymer resin, silica gel, ODS and Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography, and their structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic analysis. 15 compounds were isolated and identified as chrysoeriol (<ce:bold>1</ce:bold>), tricin (<ce:bold>2</ce:bold>), apigenin (<ce:bold>3</ce:bold>), succinic acid <ce:bold>(4)</ce:bold>,<ce:italic>β</ce:italic>-sitosterol-3<ce:italic>-O-β</ce:italic>-D-glucopyranoside (<ce:bold>5</ce:bold>), luteolin (<ce:bold>6</ce:bold>), luteolin-7<ce:italic>-O-β-</ce:italic>D-glucopyranoside (<ce:bold>7</ce:bold>), ethylsyringin (<ce:bold>8</ce:bold>), apigenin-7<ce:italic>-O-β</ce:italic>-D-glucopyranoside (<ce:bold>9</ce:bold>), luteolin-7<ce:italic>-O-β-</ce:italic>D-glucopyranosyl<ce:italic>-</ce:italic>(1→6)-[6′′′-<ce:italic>O</ce:italic>-caffeoyl]-<ce:italic>β</ce:italic>-D-glucopyranoside (<ce:bold>10</ce:bold>), luteolin<ce:italic>-</ce:italic>7<ce:italic>-O-β-</ce:italic>D-gentiobioside (<ce:bold>11</ce:bold>), syringin (<ce:bold>12</ce:bold>), 3<ce:italic>-O-</ce:italic>caffeoylquinic acid (<ce:bold>13</ce:bold>), 5<ce:italic>-O-</ce:italic>caffeoylquinic acid <ce:bold>(14)</ce:bold>, and 4-<ce:italic>O</ce:italic>-(<ce:italic>β-</ce:italic>D-glucopyranosyl)-benzoic acid <ce:bold>(15)</ce:bold>, respectively. Compounds <ce:bold>1-5, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15</ce:bold> were reported from <ce:italic>C. nervosa</ce:italic> for the first time.
The first phytochemical investigation on the roots of <b>Ligularia purdomii</b> led to the isolation and identification of 18 compounds, including two eremophilane sesquiterpenoids (<b>1</b> and <b>2</b>), three benzofuran derivatives (<b>3</b>-<b>5</b>), a triterpenoid (<b>6</b>), two steroids (<b>7</b> and <b>8</b>), nine phenolic components (<b>9</b>-<b>17</b>), and a monofatty glyceride (<b>18</b>). The structural elucidation of the isolated compounds was performed by spectroscopic data and comparison with the literature. Compounds (−)-syringaresinol (<b>11</b>), scopoletin (<b>13</b>), 3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxy-benzaldehyde (<b>14</b>), and glycerol monolinoleate (<b>18</b>) have not been recorded in <b>Ligularia</b> genus previously. The chemotaxonomic significance of these isolated compounds has been summarized.<br>• First phytochemical investigation on <b>L. purdomii.</b> • 18 compounds were identified from the acetone extract of <b>L. purdomii.</b> • Four compounds were reported from the genus <b>Ligularia</b> for the first time. • The results had important significance for chemotaxonomy of <b>L. purdomii.</b>
Objective: To investigate the chemical constituent from the roots of Gentiana straminea.; Methods: The constituents were separated by microporous resin,silica gel,Sephadex LH-20 and preparative column chromatography and their structures were elucidated by NMR and MS spectral methods.; Results: Twelve chemical constituents were isolated from the roots of Gentiana straminea and their structures were identified as daucosterol( 1),β-sitosterol( 2),ursolic acid( 3),sweroside( 4),swertiamarin( 5),gentiopicroside( 6),6’-O-acetyl-gentiopicroside( 7),6’-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-sweroside( 8),protocatech uic aldehyde( 9),protocatechuic acid( 10),methyl gallate( 11) and dibutyl phthalate( 12).; Conclusion: The compounds 8,9,10,11 and 12 are obtained from this plant for the first time.;
Nine alkaloids and two phenolic glycosides were isolated from EtOH extract of the whole plants of Corydalis hendersonii by various chromatographic techniques including silica gel, ODS, Sephadex LH-20, and semi-preparative HPLC. Their structures were identified as groenlandicine (1), berberine (2), protopine (3), cryptopine (4), N-trans-feruloyloctopamine(5), 3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-N-[2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2-methoxyethyl] acrylamide (6), N-cis-p-coumaroyloctopamine (7), N-trans-p-coumaroylnoradrenline (8),N-cis-feruloyloctopamine (9), apocynin (10), and glucoacetosyringone (11) by the spectroscopic data analysis and comparison with those in the literature. Among them, compounds 10 and 11 were isolated from this genus for the first time, and 1, 2, and 5-9 were isolated from the species for the first time. All isolates were tested for their protection for in vitro PC12 cell line and antiplatelet aggregation activity. The results showed that compounds 5 and 7 displayed protective effects at a concentration of 10 μmol·L⁻¹, and compound 2 showed antiplatelet aggregation activity induced by THR, ADP, and AA, and compound 3 exhibted inhibitory effect induced by THR.; Copyright© by the Chinese Pharmaceutical Association.
OBJECTIVE: To study the chemical constituents of Arenaria kansuensis.METHOD: Column chromatographic techniques were applied to isolated constituents. A combination of physico-chemical properties and spectroscopic analysis were used to identify structures of constituents.
RESULT: Five compounds were obtained and elucidated as tricin (1), tricin-7-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside (2), tricin 4'-O-beta-guaiacylglyceryl ether (3), isoscoparin (4) and isovitexin (5).
CONCLUSION: Compound 2, 3 and 5 were isolated from A. kansuensis for the first time, compound 3 was obtained from the family Caryophyllaceae for the first time.
A phytochemical investigation on the aerial parts of a Tibetan medicine Meconopsis horridula, by solvent extraction, repeated chromatographies on silica gel, Sephadex LH-20, and preparative TLC techniques, led to the isolation of 9 compounds. By spectroscopic analysis and comparison of its 1H and 13C-NMR data with those in literatures, their structures were identified as oleracein E(1), N-( trans-p-coumaroyl) tyramine (2), chrysoeriol (3), apigenin (4), hydnocarpin (5), p-coumaric acid glucosyl ester (6), stigmast-5-ene-3beta-ylformate (7), 3beta-hydroxy-7alpha-ethoxy-24beta-ethylcholest-5-ene (8), and beta-sitosterol (9), respectively, among which compounds 6-8 were isolated from the genus for the first time,and 1,3 were isolated from the species for the first time. A MTT method was applied to evaluate the cytotoxic activity of compounds 14 against the human hepatocellular liver carcinoma cell line (HepG2), and compound 1 showed significant cytotoxicity against HepG2,with its inhibitory rate of 52.2% at 10 micromol x L(-1).;
Six compounds were isolated from alcoholic extracts of Meconopsis quintuplinervia Regel.. On the basis of spectroscopic methods, their structures were identified as 8,9 -dihydroxy-1,5,6,10b-tetrahydro-2H-pyrrolo [ 2,1-a ] isoquinolin-3-one (1), o-methylflavinantine (2), amurine (3), tricin (4), luteolin (5) and β-sitosterol (6). Among them, compounds 1 and 4 were isolated from the plant for the first time.
Zuotai, a famous Tibetan medicinal mixture containing β-HgS, has been used to combine with herbal remedies for treating diseases for more than 1 300 years. The target organ for inorganic mercury toxicity is generally considered to be the kidney. Therefore, it is crucial to reveal the chemical speciation, spatial distribution and potential nephrotoxicity of mercury from Zuotai in kidney. To date, this remains poorly understood. We used X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and micro X-ray fluorescence (μ-XRF) imaging based on synchrotron radiation to study mercury chemical forms and mercury special distribution in kidney after mice were treated orally with Zuotai, β-HgS or HgCl2. Meanwhile, the histopathology of kidney was observed. Mice exposed with Zuotai showed kidney with significant proportion of mercury ions bound to sulfydryl biomolecules (e.g. Cys-S-Hg-S-Cys) plus some of unknown species, but without methylmercury cysteine, which is the same as β-HgS and HgCl2. The mercury is mainly deposited in renal cortex in mouse treated with Zuotai, β-HgS or HgCl2, but with a low level of mercury in medulla. The total mercury in kidney of mice treated with HgCl2 was much higher than that of β-HgS, and the later was higher than that of Zuotai. And, HgCl2 cause severe impairments in mouse kidney, but that was not observed in the Zuotai and β-HgS groups. Meanwhile, the bio-metals (Ca, Zn, Fe and Cu) micro-distributions in kidney were also revealed. These findings elucidated the chemical nature, spatial distribution and toxicity difference of mercury from Zuotai, β-HgS and HgCl2 in mouse kidney, and provide new insights into the appropriate methods for biological monitoring.
Zuotai (gTso thal) is one of the famous drugs containing mercury in Tibetan medicine. However, little is known about the chemical substance basis of its pharmacodynamics and the intrinsic link of different samples sources so far. Given this, energy dispersive spectrometry of X-ray (EDX), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to assay the elements, micromorphology, and phase composition of nine Zuotai samples from different regions, respectively; the XRD fingerprint features of Zuotai were analyzed by multivariate statistical analysis. EDX result shows that Zuotai contains Hg, S, O, Fe, Al, Cu, and other elements. SEM and AFM observations suggest that Zuotai is a kind of ancient nanodrug. Its particles are mainly in the range of 100–800 nm, which commonly further aggregate into 1–30 μm loosely amorphous particles. XRD test shows that β-HgS, S8, and α-HgS are its main phase compositions. XRD fingerprint analysis indicates that the similarity degrees of nine samples are very high, and the results of multivariate statistical analysis are broadly consistent with sample sources. The present research has revealed the physicochemical characteristics of Zuotai, and it would play a positive role in interpreting this mysterious Tibetan drug. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
A phytochemical investigation of <b>Saxifraga tangutica</b> led to the isolation of 11 compounds, including eight diarylheptanoids (<b>1</b>-<b>6</b>, <b>10</b> and <b>11</b>) and three phenylpropanoids (<b>7</b>-<b>9</b>). The chemical structures were established by extensive analysis of their MS and NMR spectroscopic data or comparison with literature data. In the present research, we report the isolated compounds <b>1</b>-<b>11</b>, for the first time, in the species <b>S. tangutica</b>. Moreover, compounds <b>1</b>, <b>2</b> and <b>4</b>-<b>11</b> have not been reported from any species in Saxifragaceae family. Furthermore, we discuss the chemotaxonomic significance of the isolated compounds.<br>• Eight diarylheptanoids and three phenylpropanoids have been isolated from <b>Saxifraga tangutica.</b> • Compounds <b>1</b>-<b>11</b> are firstly reported in the species <b>Saxifraga tangutica.</b> • Compounds <b>1</b>, <b>2</b> and <b>4</b>-<b>11</b> are firstly isolated from genus <b>Saxifraga</b> or family Saxifragaceae.
OBJECTIVE: To compare the ettect and side-ettect of fluoxetine and combination of fluoxetine and Chinese or Tibetan medicine in treating senile depression in plateau district. Methods Ninety patients with diagnosis of senile depression conformed to CCMD-3 standard, in plateau district of 2260 - 3200 m altitude were randomly divided into three groups and treated with fluoxetine (group A), fluoxetine plus Sanpu Xinnao Xin granule (group B) and fluoxetine plus Xiaoyao pill (group C), respectively, 30 cases in each group. Therapeutic effects were evaluated with Hamilton' s depressive scale (HAMD) and treatment emergent symptom scale (TESS) after 6 weeks treatment.RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the therapeutic effects between the three groups. The adverse reaction in Group B and C was less than that in Group A (P<0.01). Conclusion Sanpu Xinnao Xin granule and Xiaoyao pill can raise the tolerance of patients with senile depression in plateau area against the adverse reaction of fluoxetine.
[Objectives] By clustering analysis of tissue distribution data of brucine and strychnine in gastric ulcer model rat, the impact of Zuota on tissue distribution of basic components was studied. [Methods] Based on system clustering method of SPSS19.0 statistical analysis software, using inter-group join method and squared Euclidean distance, brucine and strychnine contents of different tissues and organs in non- Zuota group and Zuota group were taken as characteristic variables for clustering analysis, and phylogenetic tree was established. [Results] When clustering distance was 1, (i) taking brucine content as the index, there were three kinds of convergences in non-Zuota group. A1 class: skin, liver, epididymitis and jejunum; A2 class: brain and uterus; A class: testis and muscle. Brucine contents of the three classes showed a A1 < A2 < A. There were two classes of convergences in Zuota group. B1 class : jejunum, epididymis, kidney, brain, skin and uterus; B2 class: muscle and (bottom) submandibular gland. Brucine contents of the two classes showed as B1 < B2. (ii) Taing strychnine content as the index, there were three classes of convergences in non-Zuota group. C1 class: muscle, testicle and oarrum; C2 class: heart and lung; C3 class: uterus and liver. Strychnine contents of the three classes showed a C3 <C1 < C2. There were two kinds of convergences in Zuota group. D1 class : kidney and heart; D2 class : brain tissue and uterus. Strychnine contents of the two classes showed as D1 > D2. [Conclusions] When clustering distance was 1, low-content tissues and orgas firstly clustered, and its toxicological eefect(or pharmacodynamic action)was insignificant, and this kind of tissues and organs were relatively safe. A1 class and A2 class in Zuota group were merged into B1 class, in which liver was replaced by kidney. It iilustrated that Zuota could decline the toxicity of kidney, and enlarged the safe action range of brucine. Kidney and heart in C2 class were clustered into D1 class, and average strychnine content in C2 class was higher than that of D1 class. It could be deduced that Zuota had the effect of protecting heat.
One new compound, colletotrichine B (1), was produced by the fungal Colletotrichum gloeosporioides GT-7. The structure of 1 was elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic analysis and X-ray crystallographic analysis. Monoamine oxidase (MAO), acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3Kα) inhibitory activity of 1 was also evaluated. Compound 1 showed only AChE inhibiting activity with IC50 value of 38.0 ± 2.67 μg/mL.
The flower buds of five <i>Lonicera</i> species, <i>Lonicera japonica</i> Thunb., <i>L. macranthoides</i> Hand.-Mazz., <i>L. hypoglauca</i> Miq., <i>L. confusa</i> DC. and <i>L. fulvotomentosa</i> Hsu et S.C. Cheng are confusable and usually utilized under the same name “Jinyinhua” in different areas for morphological similarity. Studies found that these five species possess extreme differences in chemical compounds, correspondingly showing different pharmacological activities and clinical applications. To ensure efficacy and safety of these herbal medicines and prevent unknown adverse effect, in this work, a simple, rapid and effective method combining normal light and fluorescence microscopy was developed for authentication. Surface slides and transverse sections of these buds were investigated to reveal their differences. As a routine technique, normal light microscopy which gives detailed microscopic features such as glandular hairs and nonglandular hairs, can easily distinguish four species except <i>L. confusa</i>. Fluorescence technique, which could present different distribution of fluorescence materials, is further employed to identify three species including <i>L. confusa</i> successfully. It is the first report to identify these five <i>Lonicera</i> species by combining normal light and fluorescence microscopy. This work indicated combining normal light and fluorescence microscopy could be a powerful method in authentication of confused species. Microsc. Res. Tech.74:133-141, 2011. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
High throughput sequencing technology is also called Next Generation Sequencing (NGS), which can sequence hundreds and thousands sequences in different samples at the same time. In the present study, the culture-independent high throughput sequencing technology was applied to sequence the fungi metagenomic DNA of the fungal internal transcribed spacer 1(ITS 1) in the root of Sinopodophyllum hexandrum. Sequencing data suggested that after the quality control, 22 565 reads were remained. Cluster similarity analysis was done based on 97% sequence similarity, which obtained 517 OTUs for the three samples (LD1, LD2 and LD3). All the fungi which identified from all the reads of OTUs based on 0.8 classification thresholds using the software of RDP classifier were classified as 13 classes, 35 orders, 44 family, 55 genera. Among these genera, the genus of Tetracladium was the dominant genera in all samples(35.49%, 68.55% and 12.96%).The Shannon's diversity indices and the Simpson indices of the endophytic fungi in the samples ranged from 1.75-2.92, 0.11-0.32, respectively.This is the first time for applying high through put sequencing technol-ogyto analyze the community composition and diversity of endophytic fungi in the medicinal plant, and the results showed that there were hyper diver sity and high community composition complexity of endophytic fungi in the root of S. hexandrum. It is also proved that the high through put sequencing technology has great advantage for analyzing ecommunity composition and diversity of endophtye in the plant.
The figwort genus <i>Scrophularia</i> L. (Scrophulariaceae) comprises 200-300 species and is widespread throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere. Due to reticulate evolution resulting from hybridization and polyploidization, the taxonomy and phylogeny of <i>Scrophularia</i> is notoriously challenging. Here we report the complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequences of <i>S. henryi</i> Hemsl. and <i>S. dentata</i> Royle ex Benth. and compare them with those of <i>S. takesimensis</i> Nakai and <i>S. buergeriana</i> Miq. The <i>Scrophularia</i> cp genomes ranged from 152 425 to 153 631 bp in length. Each cp genome contained 113 unigenes, consisting of 78 protein-coding genes, 31 transfer RNA genes, and 4 ribosomal RNA genes. Gene order, gene content, AT content and IR/SC boundary structure were nearly identical among them. Nine cpDNA markers (<i>trnH-psbA</i>, <i>rps15</i>, <i>rps18-rpl20</i>, <i>rpl32-trnL</i>, <i>trnS-trnG</i>, <i>ycf15-trnL</i>, <i>rps4-trnT</i>, <i>ndhF-rpl32</i>, and <i>rps16-trnQ</i>) with more than 2% variable sites were identified. Our phylogenetic analyses including 55 genera from Lamiales strongly supported a sister relationship between ((Bignoniaceae + Verbenaceae) + Pedaliaceae) and (Acanthaceae + Lentibulariaceae). Within Scrophulariaceae, a topology of (<i>S. dentata</i> + (<i>S. takesimensis</i> + (<i>S. buergeriana</i> + <i>S. henryi</i>))) was strongly supported. The crown age of Lamiales was estimated to be 85.1 Ma (95% highest posterior density, 70.6-99.8 Ma). The higher core Lamiales originated at 65.6 Ma (95% highest posterior density, 51.4-79.4 Ma), with a subsequent radiation that occurred in the Paleocene (between 55.4 and 62.3 Ma) and gave birth to the diversified families. Our study provides a robust phylogeny and a temporal framework for further investigation of the evolution of Lamiales.
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