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What can happen when the "monkey mind" of habitual conceptual thought is awakened to the more-than-human through attention to subtle energies and artmaking? Drawing on autoethnographic methods, we demonstrate how one graduate student's creative engagement with a tree brought animist theory to life. This paper illustrates how a combination of time-in-relation, the contemplative artmaking practice of Creative Nature Connection, and special attention to subtle energies--the dark matter being addressed in this paper--can enable experiencing a tree as a sentient autonomous being. We address implications for environmental education and introduce easily doable principles for shifting into connection and opening to the unseen energy that connects all life.
Objective: To evaluate feasibility, efficacy, and tolerability of Sudarshan Kriya yoga (SKY) as an adjunctive intervention in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) with inadequate response to antidepressant treatment.Methods: Patients with MDD (defined by DSMIV-TR) who were depressed despite ≥ 8 weeks of antidepressant treatment were randomized to SKY or a waitlist control (delayed yoga) arm for 8 weeks. The primary efficacy end point was change in 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS-17) total score from baseline to 2 months. The key secondary efficacy end points were change in Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) total scores. Analyses of the intent-to-treat (ITT) and completer sample were performed. The study was conducted at the University of Pennsylvania between October 2014 and December 2015.
Results: In the ITT sample (n = 25), the SKY arm (n = 13) showed a greater improvement in HDRS17 total score compared to waitlist control (n = 12) (−9.77 vs 0.50, P = .0032). SKY also showed greater reduction in BDI total score versus waitlist control (−17.23 vs −1.75, P = .0101). Mean changes in BAI total score from baseline were significantly greater for SKY than waitlist (ITT mean difference: −5.19; 95% CI, −0.93 to −9.34; P = .0097; completer mean difference: −6.23; 95% CI, −1.39 to −11.07; P = .0005). No adverse events were reported.
Conclusions: Results of this randomized, waitlistcontrolled pilot study suggest the feasibility and promise of an adjunctive SKY-based intervention for patients with MDD who have not responded to antidepressants. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02616549 J Clin Psychiatry 2017;78(1):e59–e63 dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.16m10819 © Copyright 2016 Physicians Postgraduate Press, Inc.
The literature indicates increasing evidence showing the benefits of classroom-based, universal preventive interventions for mental health and the link between social and emotional learning and academic performance. The FRIENDS program has been extensively tested and has showed promising results not only for preventing childhood anxiety, but also for improving students' self-concept, social skills and coping skills. However, when it comes to communities in disadvantage, the results are mixed, with some studies reporting the need to include enhancements to the context in which the program is implemented to better support communities at risk. A combined intervention aiming to promote students' social-emotional skills was piloted in a school located in a low socio-economic status area. Teachers received training to teach social and emotional skills for students and a resilience program for themselves. Students' social-emotional outcomes were assessed at pre, post, 3 and 6 months following the intervention. Results showed that the intervention helped students to decrease their anxiety, and the intervention was well accepted by participants.
Recent behavioral experiments aimed at understanding the evolutionary foundations of human cooperation have suggested that a willingness to engage in costly punishment, even in one-shot situations, may be part of human psychology and a key element in understanding our sociality. However, because most experiments have been confined to students in industrialized societies, generalizations of these insights to the species have necessarily been tentative. Here, experimental results from 15 diverse populations show that (i) all populations demonstrate some willingness to administer costly punishment as unequal behavior increases, (ii) the magnitude of this punishment varies substantially across populations, and (iii) costly punishment positively covaries with altruistic behavior across populations. These findings are consistent with models of the gene-culture coevolution of human altruism and further sharpen what any theory of human cooperation needs to explain.
The development of social-emotional competence is of key importance during early childhood, particularly during the preschool years. We too often believe that early childhood education should focus on the promotion of academic skills to increase intelligence and, therefore, neglect the importance of social and emotional learning. Children who are socially and emotionally well adjusted do better at school, have increased confidence, have good relationships, take on and persist at challenging tasks and communicate well. The school setting is the optimal environment to implement interventions focused on increasing social-emotional competence. This article examines the importance of developing social-emotional competence during the early years of life and discusses universal intervention approaches within the classroom. A particular universal intervention program--The Fun FRIENDS program (Barrett, 2007)--aimed at increasing social- emotional competence is described in detail. The Fun FRIENDS program is a developmentally tailored, downward extension of the preexisting, evidence-based FRIENDS for Life program (Barrett 2004; 2005).
BACKGROUND:Individuals with a history of recurrent depression have a high risk of repeated depressive relapse/recurrence. Maintenance antidepressant medication (m-ADM) for at least 2 years is the current recommended treatment, but many individuals are interested in alternatives to m-ADM. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) has been shown to reduce the risk of relapse/recurrence compared with usual care but has not yet been compared with m-ADM in a definitive trial.
OBJECTIVES:
To establish whether MBCT with support to taper and/or discontinue antidepressant medication (MBCT-TS) is superior to and more cost-effective than an approach of m-ADM in a primary care setting for patients with a history of recurrent depression followed up over a 2-year period in terms of preventing depressive relapse/recurrence. Secondary aims examined MBCT's acceptability and mechanism of action.
DESIGN:
Single-blind, parallel, individual randomised controlled trial.
SETTING:
UK general practices.
PARTICIPANTS:
Adult patients with a diagnosis of recurrent depression and who were taking m-ADM.
INTERVENTIONS:
Participants were randomised to MBCT-TS or m-ADM with stratification by centre and symptomatic status. Outcome data were collected blind to treatment allocation and the primary analysis was based on the principle of intention to treat. Process studies using quantitative and qualitative methods examined MBCT's acceptability and mechanism of action.
MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES:
The primary outcome measure was time to relapse/recurrence of depression. At each follow-up the following secondary outcomes were recorded: number of depression-free days, residual depressive symptoms, quality of life, health-related quality of life and psychiatric and medical comorbidities.
RESULTS:
In total, 212 patients were randomised to MBCT-TS and 212 to m-ADM. The primary analysis did not find any evidence that MBCT-TS was superior to m-ADM in terms of the primary outcome of time to depressive relapse/recurrence over 24 months [hazard ratio (HR) 0.89, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.67 to 1.18] or for any of the secondary outcomes. Cost-effectiveness analysis did not support the hypothesis that MBCT-TS is more cost-effective than m-ADM in terms of either relapse/recurrence or quality-adjusted life-years. In planned subgroup analyses, a significant interaction was found between treatment group and reported childhood abuse (HR 1.89, 95% CI 1.06 to 3.38), with delayed time to relapse/recurrence for MBCT-TS participants with a more abusive childhood compared with those with a less abusive history. Although changes in mindfulness were specific to MBCT (and not m-ADM), they did not predict outcome in terms of relapse/recurrence at 24 months. In terms of acceptability, the qualitative analyses suggest that many people have views about (dis)/continuing their ADM, which can serve as a facilitator or a barrier to taking part in a trial that requires either continuation for 2 years or discontinuation.
CONCLUSIONS:
There is no support for the hypothesis that MBCT-TS is superior to m-ADM in preventing depressive relapse/recurrence among individuals at risk for depressive relapse/recurrence. Both treatments appear to confer protection against relapse/recurrence. There is an indication that MBCT may be most indicated for individuals at greatest risk of relapse/recurrence. It is important to characterise those most at risk and carefully establish if and why MBCT may be most indicated for this group.
BACKGROUND:Individuals with a history of recurrent depression have a high risk of repeated depressive relapse/recurrence. Maintenance antidepressant medication (m-ADM) for at least 2 years is the current recommended treatment, but many individuals are interested in alternatives to m-ADM. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) has been shown to reduce the risk of relapse/recurrence compared with usual care but has not yet been compared with m-ADM in a definitive trial.
OBJECTIVES:
To establish whether MBCT with support to taper and/or discontinue antidepressant medication (MBCT-TS) is superior to and more cost-effective than an approach of m-ADM in a primary care setting for patients with a history of recurrent depression followed up over a 2-year period in terms of preventing depressive relapse/recurrence. Secondary aims examined MBCT's acceptability and mechanism of action.
DESIGN:
Single-blind, parallel, individual randomised controlled trial.
SETTING:
UK general practices.
PARTICIPANTS:
Adult patients with a diagnosis of recurrent depression and who were taking m-ADM.
INTERVENTIONS:
Participants were randomised to MBCT-TS or m-ADM with stratification by centre and symptomatic status. Outcome data were collected blind to treatment allocation and the primary analysis was based on the principle of intention to treat. Process studies using quantitative and qualitative methods examined MBCT's acceptability and mechanism of action.
MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES:
The primary outcome measure was time to relapse/recurrence of depression. At each follow-up the following secondary outcomes were recorded: number of depression-free days, residual depressive symptoms, quality of life, health-related quality of life and psychiatric and medical comorbidities.
RESULTS:
In total, 212 patients were randomised to MBCT-TS and 212 to m-ADM. The primary analysis did not find any evidence that MBCT-TS was superior to m-ADM in terms of the primary outcome of time to depressive relapse/recurrence over 24 months [hazard ratio (HR) 0.89, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.67 to 1.18] or for any of the secondary outcomes. Cost-effectiveness analysis did not support the hypothesis that MBCT-TS is more cost-effective than m-ADM in terms of either relapse/recurrence or quality-adjusted life-years. In planned subgroup analyses, a significant interaction was found between treatment group and reported childhood abuse (HR 1.89, 95% CI 1.06 to 3.38), with delayed time to relapse/recurrence for MBCT-TS participants with a more abusive childhood compared with those with a less abusive history. Although changes in mindfulness were specific to MBCT (and not m-ADM), they did not predict outcome in terms of relapse/recurrence at 24 months. In terms of acceptability, the qualitative analyses suggest that many people have views about (dis)/continuing their ADM, which can serve as a facilitator or a barrier to taking part in a trial that requires either continuation for 2 years or discontinuation.
CONCLUSIONS:
There is no support for the hypothesis that MBCT-TS is superior to m-ADM in preventing depressive relapse/recurrence among individuals at risk for depressive relapse/recurrence. Both treatments appear to confer protection against relapse/recurrence. There is an indication that MBCT may be most indicated for individuals at greatest risk of relapse/recurrence. It is important to characterise those most at risk and carefully establish if and why MBCT may be most indicated for this group.
TRIAL REGISTRATION:
Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN26666654.
FUNDING:
This project was funded by the NIHR Health Technology Assessment programme and the National Institute for Health Research Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care South West Peninsula and will be published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 19, No. 73. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.
BACKGROUND:Individuals with a history of recurrent depression have a high risk of repeated depressive relapse/recurrence. Maintenance antidepressant medication (m-ADM) for at least 2 years is the current recommended treatment, but many individuals are interested in alternatives to m-ADM. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) has been shown to reduce the risk of relapse/recurrence compared with usual care but has not yet been compared with m-ADM in a definitive trial.
OBJECTIVES:
To establish whether MBCT with support to taper and/or discontinue antidepressant medication (MBCT-TS) is superior to and more cost-effective than an approach of m-ADM in a primary care setting for patients with a history of recurrent depression followed up over a 2-year period in terms of preventing depressive relapse/recurrence. Secondary aims examined MBCT's acceptability and mechanism of action.
DESIGN:
Single-blind, parallel, individual randomised controlled trial.
SETTING:
UK general practices.
PARTICIPANTS:
Adult patients with a diagnosis of recurrent depression and who were taking m-ADM.
INTERVENTIONS:
Participants were randomised to MBCT-TS or m-ADM with stratification by centre and symptomatic status. Outcome data were collected blind to treatment allocation and the primary analysis was based on the principle of intention to treat. Process studies using quantitative and qualitative methods examined MBCT's acceptability and mechanism of action.
MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES:
The primary outcome measure was time to relapse/recurrence of depression. At each follow-up the following secondary outcomes were recorded: number of depression-free days, residual depressive symptoms, quality of life, health-related quality of life and psychiatric and medical comorbidities.
RESULTS:
In total, 212 patients were randomised to MBCT-TS and 212 to m-ADM. The primary analysis did not find any evidence that MBCT-TS was superior to m-ADM in terms of the primary outcome of time to depressive relapse/recurrence over 24 months [hazard ratio (HR) 0.89, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.67 to 1.18] or for any of the secondary outcomes. Cost-effectiveness analysis did not support the hypothesis that MBCT-TS is more cost-effective than m-ADM in terms of either relapse/recurrence or quality-adjusted life-years. In planned subgroup analyses, a significant interaction was found between treatment group and reported childhood abuse (HR 1.89, 95% CI 1.06 to 3.38), with delayed time to relapse/recurrence for MBCT-TS participants with a more abusive childhood compared with those with a less abusive history. Although changes in mindfulness were specific to MBCT (and not m-ADM), they did not predict outcome in terms of relapse/recurrence at 24 months. In terms of acceptability, the qualitative analyses suggest that many people have views about (dis)/continuing their ADM, which can serve as a facilitator or a barrier to taking part in a trial that requires either continuation for 2 years or discontinuation.
CONCLUSIONS:
There is no support for the hypothesis that MBCT-TS is superior to m-ADM in preventing depressive relapse/recurrence among individuals at risk for depressive relapse/recurrence. Both treatments appear to confer protection against relapse/recurrence. There is an indication that MBCT may be most indicated for individuals at greatest risk of relapse/recurrence. It is important to characterise those most at risk and carefully establish if and why MBCT may be most indicated for this group.
TRIAL REGISTRATION:
Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN26666654.
FUNDING:
This project was funded by the NIHR Health Technology Assessment programme and the National Institute for Health Research Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care South West Peninsula and will be published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 19, No. 73. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.
Shaun Gallagher applies enactivist thinking to a staggeringly wide range of topics in philosophy of mind and cognitive science, even venturing into the realms of biological anthropology. One prominent point Gallagher makes that the holistic approach of enactivism makes it less amenable to scientific investigation than the cognitivist framework it seeks to replace, and should be seen as a “philosophy of nature” rather than a scientific research program. Gallagher also gives truth to the saying that “if you want new ideas, read old books”, showing how the insights of the American pragmatists, particularly Dewey and Mead, offer a variety of resources and tools that can be brought to bear on modern day enactivism. Here, I suggest that the adoption of enactivist thinking would undermine the assumptions of certain scientific positions, requiring their abandonment, rather than simply making it more difficult to conduct research within an enactivist framework. I then discuss how Mead’s work has been used previously as a “pragmatist intervention” to help resolve problems in a related 4E endeavour, Gibson’s ecological psychology, and make a case for the inclusion of radical behaviorism as another pragmatist resource for 4E cognition. I conclude with a plea for further enactivist intervention in studies of comparative cognition.
At the end of a short meditation exercise where students were asked to bring attention to their breath and its movement through the body, the teacher asked the young people seated on yoga mats around the room how they were feeling. “Calm.” “Relaxed.” “Good.” “Energized.” “Awake.” “Inside myself.” The students, all Black and Hispanic male clients of an Alternative to Incarceration (ATI) program for 16-to-24-year-olds had just come to the end of a class taught by the Lineage Project, a New York City non-profit that offers mindfulness-based classes to youth in various settings such as detention centres, Alternative to Incarceration/Detention (ATI/ATD) programs, and suspension schools. For the past hour, the students had participated in a class that included a discussion around a mindfulness theme (i.e., acceptance), a sequence of yoga poses, or asanas, and some seated meditation. Lineage Project teachers have been teaching these skills to troubled youth in New York City since 1998. Their work, forged over years working with youth in often challenging settings, is grounded in an expanding body of literature that suggests that youth, especially vulnerable youth, can derive important benefit from learning mindfulness-based practices such as yoga and meditation.
"When you feel anxious, angry, happy, or surprised, what's really going on inside you? Most scientists would agree that emotions come from specific parts of the brain, and that we feel them whenever they're triggered by the world around us. The thrill of seeing an old friend, the sadness of a tear-jerker movie, the fear of losing someone you love - each of these sensations arises automatically and uncontrollably within us, finding expression on our faces and in our behaviour, and carrying us away with the experience. This understanding of emotion has been around since Aristotle. But what if it's wrong? In How Your Emotions Are Made, pioneering psychologist Lisa Feldman Barrett draws on the latest scientific evidence to reveal that our ideas about emotion are dramatically, even dangerously, out of date - and that we have been paying the price. Emotions don't exist objectively in nature, Barrett explains, and they aren't pre-programmed in our brains and bodies; rather, they are psychological experiences that each of us constructs based on our unique personal history, physiology and environment. This new view of emotions has serious implications: when judges issue lesser sentences for crimes of passion, when police officers fire at threatening suspects, or when doctors choose between one diagnosis and another, they're all, in some way, relying on the ancient assumption that emotions are hardwired into our brains and bodies. Revising that conception of emotion isn't just good science, Barrett shows; it's vital to our wellbeing and the health of society itself"--Provided by publisher.
This study investigated the effects of mindfulness and exercise training on indicators of mental health and stress by examining shared mediators of program effects. Community-recruited adults ( N = 413) were randomized into one of three conditions: (a) mindfulness-based stress reduction, (b) moderate intensity exercise, or (c) wait-list control. Composite indicator structural equation models estimated direct, indirect, and total effects. Results showed that mindfulness-based self-efficacy fulfilled a prominent role in mediating meditation and exercise program effects. Findings suggest that mindfulness and exercise training share similar mechanisms that can improve global mental health, including adaptive responses to stress.
Greenhouse gases from human activities are causing climate change, creating risks for people around the globe. Behaviors involving transportation, diet, energy use, and purchasing drive greenhouse gas emissions, but are also related to health and well-being, providing opportunity for co-benefits. Replacing shorter automobile trips with walking or cycling, or eating plants rather than animals, for example, may increase personal health, while also reducing environmental impact. Mindfulness-based practices have been shown to enhance a variety of health outcomes, but have not been adapted towards environmental purposes. We designed the Mindful Climate Action (MCA) curriculum to help people improve their health while simultaneously lowering their carbon footprints. Combining mindfulness-based practices with the Stages of Change theory, the MCA program aims to: (1) improve personal health and well-being; (2) decrease energy use; (3) reduce automobile use; (4) increase active transport; (5) shift diet towards plant-based foods; and (6) reduce unnecessary purchasing. Mindfulness practices will foster attentional awareness, openness, and response flexibility, supporting positive behavior change. We plan to test MCA in a randomized controlled trial, with rigorous assessment of targeted outcomes. Our long-term goal is to refine and adapt the MCA program to a variety of audiences, in order to enhance public health and environmental sustainability.
This study used participant/observation and open-ended interviews to understand how male participants (age 18-24 years) benefited from yoga and mindfulness training within an Alternative to Incarceration (ATI) program. Findings suggest that the male participants (age 18-24 years) benefited from the intervention through reductions in stress and improvements in emotion regulation. Several participants noted the importance of the development of an embodied practice for assisting them in managing anger and impulse control. The young men’s narratives suggest that mindfulness-based interventions can contribute positively to rehabilitative outcomes within alternative to incarcerations settings, providing complementary benefit to existing ATI programs, especially for clients amenable to mindfulness training. With many jurisdictions expanding rehabilitation-focused interventions for young offenders, service providers should consider the potential positive contributions that mindfulness-based interventions can have for fostering desistance and reducing recidivism among justice system–involved populations.
Stress among parents and other primary caregivers of children with developmental disabilities is pervasive and linked to lower quality of life, unhealthy family functioning, and negative psychological consequences. However, few programs address the needs of parents or caregivers of children with developmental disabilities. A mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program is a well-suited approach for these parents and caregivers, who may be overwhelmed by their children’s situation, anticipating future challenges and reliving past traumas. We aimed to develop, implement, and evaluate the feasibility of an MBSR program designed for this population in a community-based participatory setting. Parents and caregivers were equal partners with researchers in curriculum development, recruitment, implementation and evaluation. Two concurrent classes, morning and evening, were conducted weekly in English with simultaneous Spanish translation over 8-weeks. Classes consisted of meditation practice, supported discussion of stressors affecting parents/caregivers, and gentle stretching. Of 76 participants recruited, 66 (87 %) completed the program. All participants experienced a significant reduction (33 %) in perceived stress (p < 0.001) and parents (n = 59) experienced a 22 % reduction (p < 0.001) in parental stress. Parents/caregivers also reported significantly increased mindfulness, self-compassion, and well-being (p < 0.05). Participants continued to report significant reduction in stress 2 months after the program. Our study suggests that a community-based MBSR program can be an effective intervention to reduce stress and improve psychological well-being for parents and caregivers of children with developmental disabilities. Additional research should assess the effect of cultural or socioeconomic factors on the outcomes of the intervention and further expand MBSR programs to include community-based participatory settings.
Yoga has demonstrated benefit in healthy individuals and those with various health conditions. There are, however, few systematic studies to support the development of yoga interventions for cancer patients. Restorative yoga (RY) is a gentle type of yoga that has been described as "active relaxation." The specific aims of this pilot study were to determine the feasibility of implementing an RY intervention as a supportive therapy for women diagnosed with ovarian or breast cancer and to measure changes in self-reported fatigue, psychological distress and well-being, and quality of life. Fifty-one women with ovarian (n = 37) or breast cancer (n = 14) with a mean age of 58.9 years enrolled in this study; the majority (61%) were actively undergoing cancer treatment at the time of enrollment. All study participants participated in 10 weekly 75-minute RY classes that combined physical postures, breathing, and deep relaxation. Study participants completed questionnaires at baseline, immediately postintervention, and 2 months postintervention. Significant improvements were seen for depression, negative affect, state anxiety, mental health, and overall quality of life. Fatigue decreased between baseline and postintervention follow-up. Health-related quality of life improved between baseline and the 2-month follow-up. Qualitative feedback from participants was predominantly positive; relaxation and shared group experience were two common themes.
Using the iterative process of action research, we identify six portals of understanding, called threshold concepts, which can be used as curricular guideposts to disrupt the socially constituted separation, and hierarchy, between humans and the more-than-human. The threshold concepts identified in this study provide focal points for a curriculum in transformative sustainability learning which (1) acknowledges non-human agency; and (2) recognizes that the capacity to work with multiple ways of knowing is required to effectively engage in the process of sustainability knowledge creation. These concepts are: there are different ways of knowing; we can communicate with non-human nature and non-human nature can communicate with us; knowing is relational; transrational intuition and embodied knowing are valuable and valid ways of knowing; worldview is the lens through which we view reality; and the power of dominant beliefs (represented in discourse) supports and/or undermines particular ways of knowing and being as in/valid.
Ruminative thoughts about a stressful event can seem subjectively real, as if the imagined event were happening in the moment. One possibility is that this subjective realism results from simulating the self as engaged in the stressful event (immersion). If so, then the process of decentering--disengaging the self from the event--should reduce the subjective realism associated with immersion, and therefore perceived stressfulness. To assess this account of decentering, we taught non-meditators a strategy for disengaging from imagined events, simply viewing these events as transient mental states (mindful attention). In a subsequent neuroimaging session, participants imagined stressful and non-stressful events, while either immersing themselves or adopting mindful attention. In conjunction analyses, mindful attention down-regulated the processing of stressful events relative to baseline, whereas immersion up-regulated their processing. In direct contrasts between mindful attention and immersion, mindful attention showed greater activity in brain areas associated with perspective shifting and effortful attention, whereas immersion showed greater activity in areas associated with self-processing and visceral states. These results suggest that mindful attention produces decentering by disengaging embodied senses of self from imagined situations so that affect does not develop.
AbstractThis paper chronicles students? experiences of transformative sustainability learning through ?epistemological stretching? ? a pedagogical orientation which focuses on expanding the ways of knowing that someone respects, understands, and/or engages with. With a particular emphasis on decolonizing relations between humans and the more-than-human, epistemological stretching enables students to articulate and critically engage with the epistemologies of their academic fields, gain new(old) perspectives on relations with the more-than-human, and interact with Indigenous knowledges in more effective and ethical ways. Students in this study experienced powerful learning outcomes in the following areas: reconceptualization of relationships, acknowledgement and deconstruction of power, and worldview bridging. Some students also received validation for ways of knowing that they previously engaged in but were unsure about expressing in academic contexts.
The science of emotion has been using folk psychology categories derived from philosophy to search for the brain basis of emotion. The last two decades of neuroscience research have brought us to the brink of a paradigm shift in understanding the workings of the brain, however, setting the stage to revolutionize our understanding of what emotions are and how they work. In this article, we begin with the structure and function of the brain, and from there deduce what the biological basis of emotions might be. The answer is a brain-based, computational account called the theory of constructed emotion.